Three new bamboo-specialist frogs of the genus <i>Pristimantis</i> (Amphibia: Anura: Strabomantidae) from Southern Ecuador reveal patterns of parallel evolution

Abstract Based on an integrative taxonomical approach, using morphological and bioacoustics data, we redefine Pristimantis atratus, using specimens from the type locality, and describe three new related species from the southern Ecuadorian Andes. Phylogenetic analyses place P. atratus and the new species within the Pristimantis phoxocephalus species group of the subgenus Huicundomantis. We consider these four taxa as bamboo-specialist species because they exhibit distinctive morphological traits that mimic the leaves of Andean bamboo and show strong microhabitat fidelity to bamboo-dominated ecosystems. Our results provide evidence for parallel evolution of three clades of Pristimantis that share these adaptations. Two are nested in the subgenus Huicundomantis and are distributed on the eastern slopes of the Andes, and the third, in the subgenus Trachyphrynus, Pristimantis devillei species group, on the western slopes. Our findings highlight the ecological specialization and convergent morphological adaptations of some Andean Pristimantis species to bamboo-dominated habitats, revealing the importance of these ecosystems for amphibian diversity and evolution.