Do Females Outperform Males on Second/Foreign Language (L2) Achievement? A Meta-Analytical Review across Three Decades

Abstract Gender differences in Second/Foreign language (L2) learning have long been a topic of investigation. However, inconsistent results continue to be reported. In this current meta-analysis, we identified 42 empirical studies that appeared between 1998 and 2024, with a cumulated total N = 25,613, from numerous countries. Our goal was to explore gender differences in L2 learning and to investigate possible moderators that explain such differences if found. Results revealed that L2 learning achievement varies across gender groups, with a slight but significant difference in favor of female learners ( g = 0.17, 95% CI [0.04, 0.29], 95% PI [-0.71, 1.05]). In addition, the results of moderator analyses showed that country and population type were significant factors in explaining variations across individual studies. Noteworthy findings were that the female advantage was largest for participants from China while males exhibited higher achievement in Türkiye. L2 learners from secondary schools showed the largest effect size, while those involving L2 learners from university settings showed the smallest effect size. Practical implications and suggestions for future educational and psychological research are discussed.