Hydro-meteorological and biophysical characterization of semi-arid eastern India using geospatial approach

Semi-arid regions are ecologically fragile systems where vegetation dynamics are strongly governed by hydro-meteorological variability. Western Odisha, typifies this climatic sensitivity, with recurrent droughts, erratic rainfall, and high evapotranspiration challenging sustainable land use and agriculture. This study assessed long-term (2001 to 2024) trends of hydro-meteorological and biophysical parameters including precipitation, maximum and minimum air temperature, land surface temperature (LST), actual evapotranspiration (AET), and Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) across eight districts of semi-arid Western Odisha using remote sensing datasets and non-parametric trend analysis. Results revealed significant seasonal and spatial heterogeneity. AET exhibited statistically significant declined across most districts during winter and pre-monsoon months, with maximum reductions occurring in April. LST demonstrated widespread cooling during February- May, with rates between − 0.15 and − 0.27 °C year⁻¹ in several districts, while monsoon months showed near-neutral or weakly positive changes. Maximum air temperature displayed strong pre-monsoon warming (0.15–0.22 °C year⁻¹), whereas minimum temperature increased primarily during winter nights (0.05–0.10 °C year⁻¹), indicating intensifying nocturnal warming. NDVI displayed a general greening tendency in pre-monsoon, linked to agricultural intensification, despite declining monsoon precipitation across all districts. LST was highly correlated with maximum air temperature (0.91) and negatively with NDVI (− 0.63). Rainfall exhibited a moderate positive relationship with AET (0.69). The findings highlight a complex climatic transition wherein surface cooling coexists with atmospheric warming, night-time warming, and rainfall reduction. These shifts have direct implications for agricultural water demand, vegetation resilience, and regional climate adaptation planning.