The cognitive foundations of STEM achievement: a cross-national multilevel and SEM investigation

General academic proficiency across PISA domains were strongly associated with STEM outcomes and formed statistical indirect pathways linking school climate, teacher-student interactions, and socio-demographic inequalities to achievement. Fostering cognitive and non-cognitive skills may help address educational inequities, although causal mechanisms cannot be inferred from cross-sectional data. By integrating multilevel analysis with SEM, this study delivers robust, policy-relevant insights for advancing equitable and effective STEM education globally.