Recycling Silicon PV Modules: Advances, Economic Feasibility, and Policy for a Circular Solar Economy

The global deployment of photovoltaic (PV) systems is projected to exceed 4.5 TW by 2050, with cumulative end‐of‐life (EoL) module waste surpassing 60 million tonnes. Effective recycling of crystalline silicon (c‐Si) modules is therefore critical to ensure the sustainability of solar energy. This review describes the progress across recycling routes, including mechanical, thermal, chemical, and emerging hybrid approaches, while evaluating their techno‐economic and policy implications. Mechanical recycling, currently the most commercialized method, achieves recovery rates of 80%–90% for bulk glass and aluminum but results in contamination losses of silver and high‐purity silicon. Thermal processes such as pyrolysis and incineration recover silicon with purities up to 99.9999% and silver with recovery rates above 90%, although they require temperatures exceeding 500°C and incur significant energy costs. Chemical dissolution offers the highest selectivity, with silver recovery above 95% and near‐complete ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) removal, but the use of toxic solvents and long reaction cycles limit industrial adoption. Hybrid strategies combining mechanical pretreatment with chemical or thermal steps have demonstrated material recovery exceeding EU WEEE Directive targets (85% recovery, 80% reuse). Economic analyses suggest potential revenues of $11–12 per module, driven largely by silver and glass recovery, but profitability remains sensitive to logistics and commodity price fluctuations. Policy frameworks such as extended producer responsibility (EPR) in the EU, mandatory recycling programs in Washington State, and emerging circular economy laws in China illustrate the critical role of governance in scaling recycling. The review concludes that advancing eco‐friendly solvents, low‐energy thermal designs, and harmonized global policies will be pivotal to achieving circularity in PV systems.