Solar PV in the 21st century: Aligning technological growth with sustainability

The escalating energy crisis and climate change necessitate a rapid transition to renewable energy, with solar photovoltaic (PV) technology emerging as a pivotal solution. This paper highlights the dual role of solar PV in reducing carbon emissions and enhancing energy security. It outlines the rapid, policy-driven expansion of solar PV in China, where installed capacity increased significantly from 43 GW in 2015 to 887 GW in 2024. A comparative analysis of PV deployment patterns and trends in the United States, India, and Brazil is also provided. The study further points out several challenges pertaining to geopolitical risks within critical mineral supply chains, the sustainable recycling of end-of-life PV modules, land-use conflicts, grid management, and durability that may impede the sustainability of solar PV. Furthermore, corresponding policy incentives, technological innovation, diversifying solar PV supply chains, multilateral cooperation, and circular principles are discussed to overcome these challenges; strategic integration of desert deployment, floating PV systems, and agrivoltaics exemplifies a spatially diversified approach to resolving land-energy conflicts. The paper further proposes a comprehensive sustainability framework for solar PV, emphasizing that factors such as maintaining policy stability and adaptive regulatory frameworks, assessments of lifecycle environmental impacts, and ensuring justice and equity in the energy transition are pivotal to achieving long-term sustainability. By aligning technological advancements with adaptive policies, solar PV can transition from exponential growth to sustainability, offering a viable pathway toward global carbon neutrality and resilient energy systems. • Discusses solar PV development, linking technological progress with sustainability goals amid the global energy transition. • Integrates environmental, economic, and policy perspectives for a holistic assessment of solar PV sustainability. • Identifies key sustainability challenges and corresponding mitigation pathways for the solar PV sector. • Proposes a novel sustainability framework and discusses critical factors for ensuring solar PV long-term sustainability. • Offers insights into the evolution of solar PV technology and its alignment with overarching sustainability objectives.