Can urban Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) generate effective ecological and management outcomes?

• Management and ecological data of five urban and seven non-urban MPAs were assessed • Whether the MPA is in an urban or non-urban context, management can be effective • Urban MPAs are ecologically effective with positive responses to protection • The effectiveness of MPA management depends partly on staff and financial capacity • Urban MPAs are one solution to reach global objectives and in the face of population growth The Mediterranean Sea, a hotspot of biodiversity, is impacted by the urbanisation of its coastlines. Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) play a vital role in safeguarding these urban regions and preserving their marine biodiversity. However, despite the urgent need to protect these populated areas, implementation of MPAs under such conditions remains challenging in terms of policy, financing and governance. Twelve MPAs with different urban scores were assessed in the Western Mediterranean Sea. Our objectives were to compare urban and non-urban MPAs in terms of management performance and ecological effectiveness. We analysed the effect of urbanisation on the management of MPAs and then, the effect of urbanisation and management on the variability of ecological outcomes. Our findings were the following: (1) There is no significant difference in management effectiveness between urban and non-urban MPAs, meaning that MPAs can be effectively managed in both contexts; (2) Urban MPAs are ecologically effective, with at least twice as much fish biomass inside the protected areas as outside; and (3) The implementation of an effective management strategy depends on many different factors, such as staff capacity and access to funding. This study thus provides initial insights into the effectiveness of urban MPAs, showing that they have the potential to be managed effectively, with favourable ecological outcomes. In the context of the 30 × 30 global objective, the framework of urban MPAs can serve as a model for developing new MPAs and promoting policies that encourage action, even in degraded urban ecosystems in need of protection.