Metal–organic frameworks for heavy metal remediation: Advances in sustainable adsorption mechanisms and clean water applications

The global concern over ecological safety and public health has led to the development of a sustainable approach towards pollutant remediation. Recently, heavy metals and organic pollutants have emerged as the two major contaminants, and their remediation has attracted significant attention from researchers. Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs) are porous materials composed of organic linkers and metal nodes that self-assemble into crystal structures. The unique properties of MOFs include tunable porosity, large surface area, high predictability, and functional diversity for adsorption, catalysis, and pollutant degradation. One key benefit of MOFs is their selective adsorption of various pollutants, including heavy metals, organic compounds, pharmaceuticals, personal care products, and dyes. This review uniquely integrates heavy-metal sources, MOF adsorption mechanisms, and synthesis strategies into a single comprehensive framework. The main outcome of the study highlights advanced synthesis routes, including micro-wave, sonochemical, electrochemical, and mechanochemical methods, supported with research findings on adsorption performance. The study consolidates recent evidence on MOF in clean water treatment, organic pollutant degradation, and emerging fields such as drug delivery, sensing, and photocatalysis. It also emphasizes the functionalization, hybrid composites, and membrane integration of MOFs to enhance selectivity, stability, and reusability in real-world remediation scenarios. The analysis underscores MOFs’ expanding role beyond adsorption, showcasing their versatility in environmental and biomedical technologies. Additionally, it also outlines key challenges and future directions to guide the development of next-generation MOF composites for sustainable remediation.