INDEPENDENT CONSTRAINTS AND THE DOMAIN OF VALIDITY OF PHYSICAL THEORIES

Independent-Constraint Framework (ICF): Classification of physical systems from Solar System bodies to Cosmic evolution This work presents the Independent-Constraint Framework (ICF), a measurement-based methodology for classifying physical systems and identifying observational gaps across scales from planetary bodies to cosmological regimes. Core Methodology: ICF organizes systems into empirical families defined by discontinuities in independently observable parameter space. Independent constraints are measurements from physically distinct processes (orbital dynamics, spectroscopy, occultations) with uncorrelated systematic errors. Classification validity requires: (i) ≥2 independent measurement methods, (ii) explicit uncertainty propagation (δQ formulas provided), (iii) consistency tests showing agreement within 2σ or identifying tensions >3σ. Part I - Solar System classification (spacecraft data 1962-2024): Four planetary families emerge from mass-radius-density measurements with >100σ boundary separations: High-Density Bodies (ρ > 3.9 g/cm³, N=4), Massive Hydrogen-Dominated (M > 95 M⊕, ρ < 1.4 g/cm³, N=2), Intermediate-Density (14-17 M⊕, 1.2-1.7 g/cm³, N=2), and Small Hydrostatic Bodies (M < 10²² kg, N=2+). Validation examples: Earth GM measured by two methods agrees to 7×10⁻¹⁰; Jupiter GM to 4×10⁻⁸. Part II - Cosmic evolution classification (Planck 2018, SH0ES 2022, DES/KiDS 2020-21): Three observable stages classified by redshift-density-expansion observables: Early-Stage (z > 1000, radiation-dominated), Intermediate-Stage (10 < z < 1000, matter-dominated), Mature-Stage (z < 10, dark-energy-dominated). BBN-CMB consistency validated to <1% across 5 orders of magnitude. Current tensions explicitly quantified: H₀ = 5.0σ discrepancy (67.4 ± 0.5 vs 73.0 ± 1.0 km/s/Mpc), S₈ = 2.7σ. Part III - Theory regime boundaries: Systematic validation of classical mechanics, special/general relativity, quantum mechanics, QFT, and Standard Model using independent constraints. Boundaries quantified (v/c ≥ 10⁻⁴ for SR, GM/(Rc²) ≥ 10⁻⁶ for GR) with precision ±10⁻⁵ to ±10⁻⁷. QED validated to 10⁻¹² precision (electron g-2). Gaps classified by type: measurement impossibility (black hole interiors), technical limitation (quantum gravity: 10¹⁶ orders from Planck scale), constraint conflict (H₀/S₈ tensions), theoretical incompatibility (QM-GR interface). Novelty: First unified framework organizing planetary to cosmological scales with quantitative validation, explicit gap taxonomy, and operational decision trees. All measurements include stated uncertainties and literature citations. Framework is reproducible, falsifiable, and provides pedagogical clarity separating observations from inferences. Data: NASA/ESA spacecraft archives, Planck 2018, SH0ES 2022, Pantheon+ 2022, DES Y3, KiDS-1000, PDG 2022.