Prospective life cycle assessment of the Spanish electricity mix (2023–2050): Interrelation between climate change, water footprint, and costs

In response to the climate emergency, the European Union (EU) launched the “Fit for 55” package in 2023, aiming to reduce net greenhouse gas emissions by 55 % in 2030 and achieve climate neutrality in 2050, including targets like increasing the share of renewable energy to 42.5 %. This study evaluates the environmental and economic performance of Spain's primary electricity generation technologies in the context of the EU's 2030 climate objectives and the national energy strategy. Using life cycle assessment (LCA), it quantifies the global warming potential (GWP), water scarcity impacts, and costs associated with wind, hydropower, solar thermal, photovoltaic, coal, combined cycle and nuclear power. Results indicate that coal and combined cycle technologies present the highest GWP and costs. As it could be anticipated, hydropower exhibits the highest water footprint. Wind energy shows the most favourable balance across the three categories, followed by solar technologies. The prospective analysis of the 2030 and 2050 scenarios shows that the planned transition would progressively reduce the electricity mix's fossil GWP by over 50 % and its water footprint by approximately 25 % by 2050 compared to 2023 levels. These findings support Spain's current energy transition path, though they suggest reconsideration of the planned nuclear phase-out given its relative performance in the triangle of the three assessed categories. Further LCA studies focusing on water scarcity are recommended to broaden the existing literature and therefore strengthen decision-making. • GWP, water scarcity and costs of Spain electricity mix are assessed. • Thermal power generation lead in GWP and costs, driven by operational emissions. • Wind power offers the most favourable sustainability profile. • The balance among the three categories assessed questions nuclear planned phase-out.