Factors influencing return migration after disaster relocation: Housing dissatisfaction and place attachment in the 2021 Mount Semeru eruption, Indonesia

Disaster-induced relocation is a key disaster risk reduction strategy, yet many programs fail as households return to hazard-prone zones. This study investigates return migration intention among households displaced by the 2021 Mount Semeru eruption in Indonesia, based on a cross-sectional survey of 204 returnee households and analyzed using Structural Equation Modelling–Partial Least Squares (SEM-PLS). The results show that both housing dissatisfaction (push) and place attachment (pull) significantly influence return migration intention, with housing dissatisfaction exerting a stronger effect (β = 0.630, f 2 = 0.781) than place attachment (β = 0.307, f 2 = 0.186), explaining 78.5% of the variance. These findings reveal the fragility of relocation policies that treat housing as a purely technical intervention, as dissatisfaction with resettlement design and accessibility, combined with strong kinship ties and livelihood dependence, continue to drive households back to unsafe zones. Beyond its empirical contribution, the study advances theoretical debates by showing how inadequate resettlement amplifies processes of risk normalization, while socio-economic dependence and cultural identity sustain livelihood resilience and attachment under bounded rationality in conditions of uncertainty. Relocation success therefore requires multidimensional approaches that integrate community participation, livelihood continuity, cultural recognition, institutional trust, and regulatory measures prohibiting reoccupation of high-risk areas.