Integrating clean mobility with renewable energy: Techno-economic and environmental feasibility of on-grid hybrid photovoltaic–biogas systems

The urgency for global decarbonization emphasizes the need for sustainable energy solutions to support the growth of electric vehicles (EVs). This study evaluates the techno-economic and environmental feasibility of an on-grid hybrid photovoltaic–biogas system for Electric Vehicle Charging Stations (EVCS) in Surakarta, Indonesia. A meta-analysis of 50 studies from 2023 to 2025 was conducted, revealing that hybrid PV–biogas–EV systems achieve an average Levelized Cost of Electricity (LCOE) of USD 0.098/kWh, with emissions reductions ranging from 63.82% to 100%. Simulation results indicated that the on-grid configuration produced 977.68 MWh annually, with a Net Present Cost (NPC) of approximately USD 0.85 million and an LCOE of about USD 0.03/kWh, outperforming the off-grid alternative. The on-grid system demonstrated an Internal Rate of Return (IRR) of 35.5% and a Return on Investment (ROI) of 28.2%. Additionally, the annual carbon emissions were significantly reduced to 454,362 kg CO₂ compared to conventional diesel systems. Overall, integrating PV–biogas energy into EVCS presents a reliable, economically competitive, and sustainable model to accelerate the clean energy transition in tropical regions. • Meta-analysis of 50 studies showed PV–biogas–EV systems cut CO₂ by up to 100%. • On-grid model in Surakarta yielded 977.68 MWh/year at LCOE = USD 0.03/kWh. • IRR = 35.5% and ROI = 28.2% indicate strong financial viability. • System reliability reached 99% with LPSP = 0.5%. • PV–biogas integration supports sustainable EV charging in tropical cities.