Governing beyond market and state: A grounded theory of public–commons partnerships in Spain's energy transition

Efforts to accelerate just and democratic energy transitions increasingly look to forms of governance that move beyond the dominant logics of market competition and centralized state control. Yet little is known about how such alternative arrangements emerge, operate, and generate systemic change. This article addresses this gap by examining public–commons partnerships in Spain, a context where highly concentrated energy markets coexist with a growing landscape of municipal and community-led initiatives. Based on a qualitative study of eighteen initiatives across the country and a systematic grounded-theory approach, the research develops an inductive model that explains how these partnerships take shape and how they influence wider transformation processes. The findings show that public–commons collaboration unfolds through three interrelated dimensions: localized action rooted in eco-social values, the formation of reciprocal networks that enable coordination and learning, and governance practices that challenge incumbent power and reconfigure institutional arrangements. Together, these mechanisms illustrate how partnerships between public administrations and commons-based initiatives can expand democratic participation, strengthen territorial equity, and open pathways for systemic transformation. The article advances energy governance research by offering a theoretical framework that clarifies the dynamics of hybrid public–commons arrangements and provides practical insights for policymakers and local actors seeking to build more inclusive and sustainable energy systems. • A grounded theory model explains how public–commons partnerships emerge, stabilize, and drive systemic change. • Localized action underpins trust-building, eco-social experimentation, and democratic innovation. • Collaborative scaling is theorized as a distinct expansion logic based on reciprocal networks, not replication or diffusion. • The model clarifies public–commons governance and offers an actionable framework for public administrations. • Citizen technological agency is a key driver of transparency and distributed power in public–commons arrangements.