Program animal welfare: A scoping review of animal interaction programs and their welfare impact on zoo-housed animals

Animal Interaction Programs (AIPs) have become standard practice within zoos worldwide, however, there is a severe lack of empirical data on how these programs impact animal welfare. AIPs are operationally defined as a planned interaction between a visitor and an animal for educational and entertainment purposes and can be described as a type of Animal-Visitor Interaction (AVI), which can be classified as either direct or indirect and scripted or unscripted. Although these programs are prominent within zoos, there is currently not a comprehensive synthesis of current welfare literature that examines the welfare impact, taxonomic distribution, as well as the type and prevalence of AIPs. The purpose of this scoping review was to synthesise welfare-related AIP literature to determine what is known about the welfare implications, identify key gaps and focus areas for future research, and to compare the prevalence, type, and species involved in AIPs within literature to see if it is reflected within zoos. Using the PRISMA-ScR framework, the review was conducted across three databases. A total of 49 articles were included within the review. Direct scripted AIPs were the most prominently investigated (43%). Walk-through programs were the most investigated type of AIP (23%). There was a bias towards mammalian species (82%), with less of a focus on avians (10%), reptiles (4%) or other taxa (4%). This was not reflective of the types of AIPs and species represented in current programs offered in zoos, highlighting a crucial need to diversifying the species investigated within literature as well as investigating the programs that are more commonly offered within zoos. Behavioural measures of welfare were the most utilised (70%), with activity budgets being the most prominent. Generally, neutral or no changes in welfare were described (46%), followed by positive (28%), and negative (26%) welfare impacts, however, welfare outcomes were generally mixed. There is a clear disparity between the types of programs and species represented in AIPs within literature compared to those offered in zoos as well as no clear welfare outcomes or factors that may be influencing these changes. This highlights a lack of understanding on the welfare impacts that these programs have and the factors that may be influencing them. It is critical to address this in future research to better understand the welfare impacts that AIPs have on animal welfare so that these programs can be evaluated and adjusted based on evidence rather than current practice. • Minimal literature has explored the welfare impacts of the animals involved in Animal Interaction Programs within zoos. • This review synthesised and extrapolated the data of articles examining the welfare impacts of AIPs from 2002-2024. • Direct programs were the most investigated and mammals were the most prominent taxa involved in studies. • Behavioural welfare measures were the most utilised to assess welfare, and most articles concluding neutral outcomes, however, an absence of negative indices should not justify ‘good’ welfare. • Current literature does not reflect the type, prevalence and taxonomic distribution of AIPs offered in zoos, highlighting a severe mismatch in evidence-based protocols.