Unlocking the bio-economic potential of native non-Apis bee products in Pakistan

tapping into this niche could yield considerable economic benefits for Pakistani beekeepers (16)(17)(18)(19).Many solitary non-Apis bees, particularly species within Megachile, Xylocopa, and Heriades, collect resins from local vegetation such as Prosopis juliflora, Acacia nilotica, and Moringa oleifera to line brood cells or reinforce their nests. These resins are rich in biologically active phenolic acids, diterpenes, flavonoids, and essential oils often displaying antibacterial, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties (20,21).Propolis from various bee species exhibits diverse bioactive properties. Brazilian propolis contains phenolic compounds like p-coumaric acid and flavonoids, demonstrating strong antifungal activity against Candida species (22). It also shows anti-inflammatory potential through inhibition of cytokines, chemokines, and leukocyte recruitment (23). Stingless bee propolis from Brazil contains phenolic compounds, including the novel finding of resveratrol, and displays antimicrobial activity, particularly against Candida albicans (24). A comparative study between Chinese and Brazilian green propolis revealed distinct chemical profiles but similar antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities (25). These findings highlight propolis as a promising source of bioactive compounds for potential therapeutic applications, particularly in treating fungal infections and inflammatory conditions. However, the chemical composition and bioactivity of propolis vary depending on geographical origin and bee species (26).While these findings have not yet been replicated in Pakistan, field observations of Megachile bicollaris and Xylocopa aestuans in Layyah and Pothohar Plateau suggest resin-collection behaviors that merit biochemical exploration (27). Moreover, the use of these resins in traditional wound care by indigenous communities hints at their therapeutic potential, which could be harnessed through scientific validation.Unlike Apis, which mixes pollen with nectar and enzymes to create bee bread in communal hives, solitary bees like Ceratina and Nomia ferment pollen in individual brood cells using naturally occurring lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and yeasts, producing highly nutritious and microbial stable food stores. These stores often show 23-30% higher protein content, better Formatted: Font: Bold amino acid balance, and enhanced mineral bioavailability, particularly for iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), and magnesium (Mg) (28,29).Recent metagenomic studies have revealed that solitary bee beebread harbors unique strains of probiotic bacteria, including Lactobacillus, Bifidobacterium, and Fructobacillus, which may confer health benefits when consumed by humans (30). In the Pakistani context, Ceratina smaragdula, Nomia spp., and Megachile cephalotes commonly found in field crops, forests, and orchards could serve as excellent models for characterizing these functional foods. Traditional knowledge in regions such as Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Gilgit-Baltistan also suggests occasional human use of bee-collected pollen, although these practices are not formally documented or standardized (31).Honey bees (Apis mellifera) and bumble bees (Bombus spp.) exhibit distinct comb structures and functional adaptations that reflect their ecological and social organization (Figure 1). Honey bees construct precise hexagonal wax combs arranged vertically for efficient brood rearing and largescale honey storage (32,33), whereas bumble bees form irregular, pot-like wax cells often reinforced with plant resins (propolis), enhancing antimicrobial protection (34). These structural differences align with their colony needs honey bees require stable thermal regulation (34-35°C) for brood development, while bumble bees exhibit less efficient thermoregulation due to smaller, seasonal nests. Worldwide, honey bees dominate commercial beekeeping due to their high-value wax and honey production whereas bumble bees are primarily used for pollination in controlled environments (34)(35)(36). In Pakistan, both species contribute to ecosystem services, but honey bees are more extensively managed for apiculture, while wild bumble bees play a vital role in mountain and agricultural pollination despite lacking structured cultivation. The antimicrobial properties of bumble bee combs, enriched with propolis suggest potential biotechnological applications that remain underexplored in the region. While honey bees excel in large-scale resource storage and human utilization, bumble bees demonstrate superior pathogen resistance, highlighting their complementary ecological roles (2,3,34). Bee products exhibit remarkable biochemical diversity between honeybees (Apis spp.) and non-Apis species, with significant implications for their nutritional and therapeutic applications. As earlier discussed, non-Apis bee products consistently demonstrate superior bioactive properties compared to conventional products (37,38). Pakistani native species including Trigona, Megachile, Xylocopa aestuans, and Ceratina smaragdula show particular promise for their enhanced biochemical profiles (unpublished observations).Non-Apis honeys contain substantially higher antioxidant levels (15-20 mg GAE/g) compared to Apis honeys (5-8 mg GAE/g) In Pakistani stingless bee (Trigona) products, which traditional medicine systems have long used for wound healing this boosted antioxidant capability is especially noteworthy. Non-Apis species produce 4060 phenolic compounds versus only 2030 in Apis goods, hence showing even more variance (39).Resin from Xylocopa aestuans in Pakistan's Punjab area exhibits especially rich phenolic variety.Nutritional investigations show non-Apis pollens have 25-28% protein content compared to 1822% in Apis pollen (20). Their conventional usage as dietary supplements may be explained by this high protein level found in Ceratina smaragdula and Nomia species from the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan. Against prevalent pathogen, antimicrobial testing reveals non-Apis products create far more extensive zones of inhibition (1822 mm vs 10 mm in Apis).Megachile species from northern Pakistan show very powerful activity which is already studied in other regions of the world (40). Perhaps most remarkably, non-Apis bees harbor diverse probiotic lactic acid bacteria (LAB) strains largely absent in Apis products. Additionally, novel bioactive peptides like xylopin (MIC 1.9-15 μM) have been isolated from Xylocopa aestuans in Pakistan (41), suggesting untapped potential for drug developmentPakistan's non-Apis bees, particularly species like Xylocopa aestuans, Megachile bicollaris, and Ceratina smaragdula, have not been subjected to rigorous biochemical analysis like many studies on Apis species. Profiling their products can provide a foundation for understanding their therapeutic potential. To examine peptide composition of bee-derived products, phenolic, flavonoid, high-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (HPLCMS) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GCMS) should be used. For instance, resin samples taken from Xylocopa aestuans nests can be examined for anti-inflammatory compounds, while fermented pollen from Ceratina smaragdula can be tested for probiotic bacteria and nutritional content. Furthermore, against multi-drug resistant pathogens, antibacterial tests including zone of inhibition (ZOI) and minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) should be conducted (16,42).Meliponiculture approaches derived from Brazil and Thailand can be adapted to reflect the nesting behavior of indigenous solitary bees to promote sustainable production. The local community (especially smallholder farmers and women) will require education about safe collection of resin and pollen. The educational methods will stress that seasonal practices and nest preservation techniques can minimize habitat disturbance. Standards for the certification of bee products (including purity, quality, and traceability of source) will improve market access and equitable trading (28,43,44).The ecological services of bees other than Apis necessitate prompt policy and response action to help protect their habitats, i.e. to include important species such as Ceratina smaragdula and Megachile bicollaris in national plans for their protection as pollinators. In particular, ground Formatted: Font: Italic Formatted: Font: Italic Formatted: Font: Italic nesting bees require free foraging routes free of pesticides, along with undisturbed soil habitats, and these should be protected! Governments, NGOs, and land managers can use policy and voluntary approaches to ensure bee reserves do exist and that pollinator-friendly farming practices are implemented. Additionally, policy incentives can inspire farmers to preserve flower diversity and limit agricultural chemical overuse (45). Native non-Apis bee's species of Pakistan represent biologically rich and economically untapped source. However, a systematic documentation of their distribution patterns, product composition and biochemical properties remains largely unknown, highlights a major national research gap.