The evolution of human infants’ helplessness: unique, relational, and long-lasting developmental implications

Abstract Although human infants’ helplessness is largely overlooked in developmental science, it has attracted considerable attention in comparative anthropology and biology. In this article, we argue for the relevance of infants’ helplessness to developmental psychology. Our review covers the altricial-precocial spectrum and key features of human helplessness and examines reasons why helplessness has been overlooked. We present infants as uniquely active (with weak motor systems and stronger sensory systems) and relational (with extended development within social interactions for survival), and we note how some elements of helplessness are long lasting (with juvenile characteristics persisting through childhood and into adulthood). In closing, we urge researchers to rethink helplessness as a paradigmatic, nonobvious characteristic in developmental systems perspective that affects many aspects of human development.