Uncovering multidimensional patterns of insufficient effort responding: A latent profile analysis integrating survey data and cognitive task performance

Insufficient Effort Responding (IER) undermines survey validity but its detection remains methodologically challenging due to its multidimensional nature. Traditional univariate IER detecting methods often overlook interactions among response behaviors. We integrated seven complementary indicators-response time, maximum longstring, response entropy, mahalanobis distance, psychometric synonym-antonym and even-odd consistency-and used latent profile analysis to classify 126 online respondents. Four profiles emerged: (1) Attentive/Engaged, reflecting conscientious participation; (2) Impulsive/Erratic, characterized by random and inconsistent answers; (3) Repetitive/Monotonic, marked by mechanical repetition; and (4) Distracted/Disengaged, exhibiting extremely prolonged response times. We then compared the four groups on executive-function tasks (Numerical Stroop, Tower of London, Card Sorting Task). Exploratory analyses revealed distinct patterns: the Repetitive/Monotonic group showed lower performance on tasks requiring cognitive flexibility and attentional control, suggesting their IER might be associated with cognitive limitations. In contrast, both Distracted/Disengaged and Impulsive/Erratic groups showed adequate or even superior cognitive performance despite exhibiting IER, suggesting motivational disengagement rather than cognitive deficits. These findings suggest IER arises from dual mechanisms-cognitive constraints versus motivational factors-and underscore the importance of multidimensional approaches in IER detection. Understanding these distinct pathways may inform differentiated intervention strategies to enhance survey design and data quality.