Ecosystem Services and Driving Factors in the Hunshandake Sandy Land, China

Understanding the spatiotemporal dynamics, interactions, and drivers of ecosystem services (ESs) is critical for ecological conservation and sustainable management in fragile sandy ecosystems. This study assessed five key ESs (water conservation, vegetation carbon sequestration, biodiversity, soil conservation, sand fixation) in the Hunshandake Sandy Land during 2000–2020, using Spearman correlation, geographically weighted regression, self-organizing maps (SOMs), and Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) to quantify trade-offs/synergies, identify ES bundles (ESBs), and clarify natural/social drivers. Results showed that all ESs fluctuated temporally with distinct spatial heterogeneity (higher in wetter, vegetated east; lower in arid, wind-erosion-prone west). Synergies dominated most ES pairs (e.g., WC-VS, WC-SC), with VS-BD showing a trade-off, WC-SF/VS-SC synergies strengthened, and WC-BD shifted from synergy to trade-off. SOMs identified six ESBs with consistent spatial patterns across decades. SEM revealed precipitation enhanced WC, evapotranspiration reduced SF/BD, temperature promoted SC but suppressed VS, elevation strongly benefited SC, NDVI was the primary driver of VS, and GDP had a slight negative effect. These findings provide insights for targeted ecological management in the study area and sustainable ES promotion in global fragile sandy landscapes.