Synergies and trade-offs in forest carbon pools: separating universal drivers from forest type-specific controls

Our findings demonstrate that forest carbon allocation is governed by a vertical trade-off and an above-belowground synergy, with tree diversity acting as a key modulator. Compared with complex natural forests, the carbon allocation mechanism in planted forests is simplified with more acute trade-offs. We conclude that enhancing structural and species diversity in plantations is a critical pathway for synergistically optimizing the entire ecosystem's carbon sink capacity.