Reclaiming emotion and reflection in education for democracy: A transformative learning perspective on the RFCDC

Highlights: - Competence-based EfD frameworks prioritise cognition over emotional–reflective learning. - The Reference Framework of Competences for Democratic Culture (RFCDC) shows vision–tools mismatch: holistic aims vs. operational descriptors. - Emotions reduced to regulation; reflection to rational self-assessment. - We propose revisions embedding affective–reflective learning in competences. - EfD + TL: emotion and reflection key to competences and democratic agency. Purpose: Education for Democracy (EfD) is framed through competence-based approaches like the Council of Europe’s Reference Framework of Competences for Democratic Culture (RFCDC). We examine how emotion and reflection—central to transformative learning (TL) and democratic competences—are represented within the framework. Design/methodology/approach: We conducted a semantic and qualitative collocation analysis of RFCDC Volumes 1–3, focusing on emotion- and reflection-related terms, triangulated across the competence model, descriptors, and implementation guidance. Findings: While Volume 1 promotes holistic learning, operative elements narrow emotions to regulation and behaviour control, and reduce reflection to rational self-assessment. This creates a mismatch, revealing that cognitive and measurable outcomes dominate at the expense of transformative, embodied learning. Research limitations/implications: As an interpretative corpus study, implicit references may remain underrepresented. Findings highlight the need to revise competence frameworks to embed affective–reflective dimensions more systematically. Practical implications: Revising frameworks to embed emotion and reflection is essential to support democratic education that prepares adaptable, ethically grounded citizens able to thrive in uncertain contexts.