Nanomedicine applications for the treatment of <i>Staphylococcus aureus</i> infections

Staphylococcus aureus is a Gram-positive bacterium capable of infecting multiple types of cells, organs, and tissues in the human body. Treatment can become highly challenging, especially in the case of intracellular infections and upon biofilm formation. Additionally, this pathogen has developed several antimicrobial resistance mechanisms, and resistant strains such as methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) are among the most difficult to treat. Within this context, nanomedicine can offer novel and more efficient treatments against S. aureus. Here, we first introduce the challenges in the treatment of S. aureus infections, focusing on intracellular infections and biofilms, and challenges associated with the development of resistance. We then provide an overview of the multiple applications of nanomedicine against S. aureus infection and discuss how nanomedicine may overcome the challenges in reaching this pathogen and eliminating it, including potential solutions less prone to generating resistance. Finally, we discuss the current clinical development of antimicrobial nanomedicines, where only one out of 35 completed trials has so far targeted MRSA, indicating that most research is still at the preclinical stage. Challenges in the clinical translation of antimicrobial nanomedicines are discussed, together with strategies to support the development of these promising therapeutic agents.