Effectiveness of executive function interventions in typically developing preschool children: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Early interventions to enhance executive function (EF) have received growing attention; however, evidence of their effectiveness remains limited. To address this gap, we systematically reviewed and meta-analyzed studies evaluating such interventions in typically developing children aged 3 to 6 years. A database search conducted through January 2025 identified 35 eligible studies (randomized and non-randomized), including 2,367 participants in intervention groups and 1,928 in controls. Interventions comprised 27 cognitive-based, 7 multimodal, and 1 physical activity program. Seventeen randomized trials were included in the meta-analysis, examining inhibitory control, nonverbal working memory, and verbal working memory. Results showed small positive effects on verbal working memory (<i>d</i> = 0.13; <i>I²</i> = 18%) and inhibitory control (<i>d</i> = 0.10; <i>I²</i> = 88%), and an almost null effect on nonverbal working memory (<i>d</i> = 0.02; <i>I²</i> = 86%). Although modest in magnitude, these patterns suggest domain-specific gains that may hold developmental relevance in preschool populations. The small effect sizes likely reflect the brief duration, methodological heterogeneity, and limited statistical power of the included studies, which were primarily conducted in non-clinical samples. Overall, these findings provide cautious yet informative evidence on the potential benefits of early EF interventions and underscore the need for larger, methodologically rigorous studies to identify which approaches yield consistent and meaningful improvements in early executive functioning.