Discovery of a Rich Population of Compact Hub-filament Systems in a Single Star-forming Complex

Abstract We report the discovery of 45 compact hub-filament systems (HFSs; median size ∼2.4 pc) in infrared-dark clouds (IRDCs) in the W33 complex, located at the junction of the Scutum and Norma spiral arms. Using Spitzer 8 and 24 µ m, and unWISE 12 μ m images, HFSs are identified as regions where three or more filaments converge onto a central hub, appearing as absorption features toward IRDCs. In each IRDC, HFSs mainly lie at the intersections of elongated substructures, associated with groups of protostars and lacking radio continuum emission. Minimum Spanning Tree (MST) analysis shows that protostars are closely associated with the HFSs, with protostellar core separations of ≤0.7 pc, indicating strong clustering within fragmented structures. The HFSs form two main groupings spanning 10–15 pc, with member separations of 1–3.3 pc. Around 65% are tightly clustered (<2 pc), exhibiting rich small-scale structures and emphasizing the uniqueness of the complex. MST analysis of ALMAGAL 1.38 mm continuum cores—predominantly low-mass and embedded in 10 HFSs—reveals a median core separation of ∼0.03 pc. The protostellar spacing (∼0.7 pc) significantly exceeds the thermal Jeans length (∼0.08 pc for temperature ∼18 K and density ∼10 5 cm −3 ), whereas the core spacing is smaller than the Jeans length, suggesting that thermal fragmentation may influence core formation but alone cannot explain the larger-scale protostellar distribution. All these findings together support a picture in which fragments of clouds/filaments form clumps hosting compact HFSs that facilitate efficient and clustered star formation, often yielding massive stars.