Organ and tissue accumulation of titanium dioxide after acute, subacute, subchronic, and chronic oral exposure in mice and rats: a systematic review

This review highlights the organ-specific and exposure-dependent biodistribution of titanium following oral TiO₂ intake in rodents. The evidence emphasizes the need for standardized reporting and experimental methodologies to improve data comparability across studies. Importantly, it underscores significant gaps in our understanding of chronic and low-dose exposures, conditions more reflective of real-world human scenarios, warranting further investigation to better assess long-term health risks.