Sex and gender-related differences in neurological diseases: current challenges and recommendations for clinical practice
Neurological diseases include a large variety of conditions ranging from inflammatory, vascular and neurodegenerative disorders to epilepsy and headache. The impact of sex and gender on various aspects of these conditions (epidemiology, risk factors, pathophysiology, clinical features, treatment, and management of pregnancy and breastfeeding) is still not entirely taken into consideration, despite a rapidly increasing body of evidence. This position paper covers six neurological conditions (Alzheimer's Disease, Cerebrovascular disease, Parkinson's disease, Epilepsy, Headache disorders, Multiple Sclerosis) providing an overview of available evidence on sex and gender differences, identifying knowledge gaps and providing recommendations for clinical practice and future studies. We recommend taking into consideration modifiable sex and gender specific risk factors, the role of hormones across women's lifespan and a personalized treatment approach based on gender. We also recommend that future efforts should be devoted to increase the representation of women in clinical studies, to promote sex and gender-based guideline production and to better characterize the safety profile in pregnancy of newer drugs.
Authors
- Bruna Nucera (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6023-5616)
- M Bruno (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5696-7286)
- Gennarina Arabia (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8775-4061)
- Alessandra Susie Quesado Nicoletti (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6757-340X)
- Loretta Giuliano (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2512-6972)
- G Fiume
- Alessandra Lugaresi (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2902-5589)
- Calogero Edoardo Cicero (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8647-8851)
- Simona Sacco (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0651-1939)
- Raffaele Ornello (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9501-4031)
- Luca Angelini (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6601-7476)
- Cristina Tassorelli
- Daniela Perani
- Gianmarco Abbadessa
- Maria Teresa Pellecchia
- Biancamaria Guarnieri
- On behalf of the SIN Gender Neurology Study Group and SinDem Sex and gender differences in dementia Study Group
Institutions
- University of Rome Tor Vergata (IT)
- University of Salerno (IT)
- Vita-Salute San Raffaele University (IT)
- University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli" (IT)
- University of Pavia (IT)
- University of L'Aquila (IT)
- Paracelsus Medical University (AT)
- Istituto Neurologico Mediterraneo (IT)
- Magna Graecia University (IT)
- University of Catania (IT)
- Gruppo Italiano per lo Studio dei Carcinomi dell’Apparato Digerente (IT)
- Krankenhaus Meran (IT)
- Institute of Neurological Sciences (IT)
- Hospital la Serena (CL)
- Ospedali Riuniti San Giovanni di Dio e Ruggi d'Aragona (IT)
- Istituti di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (IT)
- Centro Neurolesi Bonino Pulejo (IT)
- Imperial College London (GB)
- University of Bologna (IT)
Publication Details
- Journal
- Neurological Sciences
- Published
- 2026-01-01
- DOI
- https://doi.org/10.1007/s10072-025-08623-8
- Primary Topic
- Menopause: Health Impacts and Treatments
- Type
- article
- Field-Weighted Citation Impact
- 0.00