Electric and Magnetic Field Technologies in Agriculture: Plant Responses, Experimental Limitations, and Future Directions

All living organisms on Earth are naturally exposed to planetary electromagnetic fields, which interact with biological processes in various ways. In agriculture, applications typically employ these fields separately through distinct technologies and methodologies. Electric and magnetic fields are inherently linked, as each can generate the other when the fields are dynamic. Despite growing research interest in both fields, no review has systematically described their effectiveness and mechanisms of plant growth and development. This Review provides a theoretical, technological, and practical comparison of electric and magnetic field effects on plant systems and proposes a model clarifying the mechanistic convergence of both fields. Four predominant mechanisms have been suggested: (a) changes in membrane permeability, (b) reactive oxygen species production and antioxidant response, (c) improvements in ion absorption and transport, and (d) DNA alterations and gene expression patterns. Applications of both fields can extend beyond simple seed treatment to various applications for real-world crop production.