Income, Heating Technologies and Behavioral Patterns as Drivers of Particulate Matter Emissions in the Kraków Metropolitan Area

Air pollution episodes caused by particulate matter (PM) persist in and around Kraków even after the city’s ban on solid fuels. We examine how household wealth and the ongoing replacement of old heat sources with modern, energy-efficient units affect these emissions. Years of hourly data from a network of low-cost sensors for neighboring municipalities are combined with the Poland building emissions register specifying the number and type of heating devices and municipal personal income tax records. Two distinct emission patterns emerge. Episodes of elevated concentrations near houses with old hand-loaded stoves follow pronounced behavioral cycles tied to residents return home hours and the nightly sleep cycle, whereas elsewhere the pattern is smoother—consistent with modern heating sources or with advection from dispersed upwind sources. Municipalities that recorded per capita income growth also showed declines in average PM concentrations, suggesting that rising incomes accelerate the transition to cleaner, more efficient heating. Our findings suggest that economic development is linked to the shift towards cleaner and more efficient energy, and that providing targeted support for low-income households should not be overlooked in completing the transition.