Spatiotemporal evolution of capitals and settlements in the Luoyang Basin from the Xia to Han-Wei periods

This GIS-based study examines the spatiotemporal evolution of 1085 settlements and capitals in the Luoyang Basin from the Xia to Han-Wei periods (c. 2070 BCE—534 CE). Settlement patterns transitioned from a dispersed, multi-centric cluster to a pronounced core-periphery structure by the Han-Wei era, reflecting intensified central control. Centroid analysis highlights distinct migration paths: settlements shifted northwest, while capitals underwent extensive east-west pendulum shifts. Both ultimately converged on the Yiluo River’s northern bank, signifying spatial coupling driven by political consolidation. Settlement orientation also shifted from a topographically influenced northwest-southeast axis in the Xia period to a politically aligned east-west axis in the Han-Wei period. This evolution reflects a fundamental shift in spatial organization from natural constraints to planned political structures, affirming “governing across the river” as a key strategy in ancient Chinese spatial governance.