Determination of Sex in Adult Humans by Anthropometric Data of Acromial, Sternal End and Volume of the Clavicle: A Review

Forensic sexing in sub-Saharan Africa often uses European formulas, which only get 29–55% right for local bones. This study set out to make sexing standards for Nigerians and to test whether 3D bone volume checks work better than simple measurements. We studied 384 Nigerian adults (192 men, 192 women) aged 25–65 from five hospitals between January 2022 and December 2023. CT scans gave both regular and 3D bone data. We analysed these using discriminant function and machine learning models in R. Men's bones were larger in every way (p<0.001), with large effect sizes (d=0.71-1.82). Men's clavicles were up to 14.5 mm longer, and had 30.7% more volume. The best model using five bone measures got 92.7% sexing accuracy (95% CI [89.8, 95.6]), with 94.3% sensitivity and 91.1% specificity. 3D volume checks worked better (AUC=0.967) than simple length alone (AUC=0.932). Developing and applying Nigerian-specific standards with 3D methods makes clavicle sexing a precise forensic tool in Nigeria.