Giving voice to stakeholders on fair and valid use of accommodations and universal tools in digital standardized tests

This study explores stakeholders' perspectives on the use of accommodations and universal tools in standardized digital assessments, focusing on (1) students with special educational needs (SEN) and (2) all students. Using data from 20 focus groups, representing educators, policy staff, parents, psychometricians, and legal experts (n = 182), we conducted thematic analysis to identify key considerations for inclusive assessment. The findings highlight persistent tensions between fairness, construct validity, and comparability, alongside broad support for Universal Design for Assessment (UDA) and the provision of individual accommodations. The study contributes to the ongoing discourse on establishing inclusive testing environments in large-scale assessments that are fair to all students, while upholding the principles of validity, reliability, and equity. Practical recommendations and policy scenarios are provided to guide the development of inclusive and valid large-scale testing systems.