Climate change and agriculture: A comprehensive review of impacts, adaptation strategies and resilience mechanisms

Climate change poses a profound threat to global agriculture, with far-reaching implications for food security, rural livelihoods and sustainable development. Agriculture remains highly vulnerable to climate-induced stresses such as droughts, heat waves, erratic and intense rainfall, storms, floods and the resurgence of pest and disease outbreaks. These climatic disruptions directly influence crop physiology, soil health, water availability and overall productivity. Projections indicate a substantial rise in temperature and greater variability in rainfall patterns in the coming decades, increasing the frequency and severity of climate extremes. As a result, yields of major staple crops may decline by up to 30 %, primarily due to reduced plant productivity, shortened growing periods and crop failures in climate-sensitive regions. In response to these escalating challenges, the promotion and integration of climate-smart and resilient agricultural practices have become essential to sustaining production systems. Approaches such as climate-smart agriculture (CSA), improved water and soil management, stress-tolerant crop varieties, diversified farming systems and innovative adaptation technologies play a crucial role in enhancing resilience. Strengthening institutional support, extension services and farmer capacities is equally vital for effective adaptation. This scoping review systematically synthesises current evidence on the impacts of climate change on agriculture and identifies a wide range of adaptation and resilience strategies implemented across different agro-ecological contexts. The review also highlights key gaps in existing knowledge and suggests future directions for research and policy to bolster climate-resilient agricultural systems and ensure long-term food security.