Hidden codes, silent concepts: Spatial language in primary math textbooks from Türkiye and England

This study presents a comparative analysis of spatial language use in first-grade mathematics textbooks from Türkiye and England. It investigates the frequency, contextual depth, and pedagogical function of spatial expressions. A qualitative document analysis method was employed, using state-sanctioned textbooks from the 2023–2024 academic year. The results show that the Turkish textbook contains a higher number of spatial terms; however, these are often used in directive statements (e.g., “complete the shape below”) with limited conceptual depth. In contrast, the English textbook includes fewer spatial terms but integrates them into problem-solving tasks, cross-disciplinary activities, and narrative contexts. This approach promotes deeper spatial reasoning and cognitive engagement. The findings suggest that effective use of spatial language depends not only on its frequency but also on how meaningfully it is embedded in instructional content. The study recommends that teacher education programs emphasize the cognitive value of spatial language, and that textbook authors incorporate it in more conceptually rich and interactive ways. Future research should explore spatial language use across different grade levels, international curricula, and real classroom settings to gain further insight into its role in mathematical thinking and learning.