Biosensors for Non-Destructive Fruit Quality Assessment: A Comprehensive Review of Principles and Applications in Green Horticulture

Abstract— Biosensors are analytical devices that combine a biological sensing element (enzymes, antibodies, microorganisms, DNA, or plant tissues) with a physical transducer to detect and measure specific substances (analytes) in fruits. This interaction produces a measurable biological response that the transducer converts into an electrical, optical, or thermal signal. Valued for assessing fruit quality, biosensors enable rapid, real-time, and non-destructive testing, overcoming the time-consuming, destructive nature of traditional laboratory analysis. An effective biosensor exhibits high selectivity (detecting only the target in complex tissues), sensitivity (detecting trace compounds), quick response, linearity, reproducibility, and stability. Different biosensor types operate on distinct sensing principles. Electrochemical biosensors measure electrical signals from biochemical reactions, offering low cost and fast response. Optical biosensors detect changes in light (absorption, fluorescence) for color and biochemical analysis. Calorimetric biosensors measure minute heat changes from reactions, while piezoelectric/acoustic sensors detect mass-based vibrations on crystal surfaces. Potentiometric biosensors measure voltage changes for ion detection (e.g., pH), and amperometric biosensors measure current changes for detecting pesticides and sugars. In fruit quality assessment, advanced biosensing technologies are widely applied. Optical sensors like Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (NIRS), hyperspectral imaging, and visible light imaging monitor ripeness, defects, sugar levels, and maturity by analyzing light absorption/reflection. Electromagnetic technologies such as Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) and Terahertz sensing reveal internal structures, moisture, and residues non-destructively. Acoustic/ultrasonic sensors use wave propagation to determine firmness and internal defects. Electronic nose (E-nose) systems detect volatile compounds to assess aroma, freshness, and spoilage. Dielectric property sensors measure electrical permittivity to assess internal quality and moisture content. This review comprehensively details the principles, types, and integrated applications of these biosensors for non-destructive fruit quality monitoring in green horticulture.