Occurrence, challenges, and control strategies for biofilms in irrigation networks of modern agriculture

Biofilms in agricultural irrigation networks represent a crucial and escalating global concern, directly threatening water quality, crop production, and food authenticity. These recalcitrant microbial community consortia enrobed in extracellular polymeric substrates (EPS) are the perpetrators of emitter occlusion, Microbially Influenced Corrosion (MIC), and reservoirs for pathogens and antimicrobial resistance (AMR) genes. Although there is a wealth of experimental knowledge about the identity and formation of biofilms, a comprehensive, multi-criteria analysis investigating specific control measures appears lacking in literature. This shortcoming is addressed in the present review, which provides a comprehensive discussion of biofilm control based on physical, chemical and biological approaches and emerging strategies aimed at meeting key performance criteria in terms of effectiveness, cost efficiency, environmental impact and applicability. We further deconstruct how biofilm microdiversity supports their stability and public health impact, particularly their role as hotspots for Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) gene transmission. Our investigation concludes with a new comprehensive management model combining real-time monitoring, passive design and combined treatment pressures. We show that chemical biocides are immediately cost-effective, but pose substantial risks of resistance development and ecotoxicity in the long-term. Sustainable solutions such as phage therapy, ozone nanobubbles, and AI-driven predictive management provide viable — if initially more costly — possibilities for resilience. This review concludes with actionable recommendations for stakeholders and identifies key research frontiers, including the long-term ecotoxicity of nanoparticles and biofilm dynamics under climate change, charting a course for intelligent and sustainable biofilm management in modern agriculture. • Biofilms impact irrigation, causing clogging and inefficiencies. • Review explores biofilm control: physical, chemical, biological. • Sustainable biofilm strategies needed for water, food security. • Ozone and nanobubbles offer a promising, eco-friendly solution.