Household experiences and adaptation to drought impacts on rural livelihoods in Limpopo Province, South Africa

Abstract Drought threatens rural livelihoods in sub-Saharan Africa’s semi-arid regions, which rely heavily on rain-fed agriculture. While previous studies have emphasised macro-level drought impacts, limited attention has been given to household-level experiences and the socio-economic and institutional determinants of adaptation and resilience. This study addresses this gap by examining household drought experiences, adaptation strategies, and resilience in the Mopani and Capricorn Districts of Limpopo Province, South Africa. Guided by the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework, a mixed-methods approach combined quantitative data from 478 household surveys, analysed using descriptive statistics, chi-square tests, and multivariate probit models, with qualitative insights from focus groups and interviews. Results indicate that 89.1% of households experienced severe drought within five years, with widespread impacts including crop failure (82.3%), water scarcity (71.6%), and livestock mortality (49.5%). Food insecurity affected 74% of households in Mopani and 69% in Capricorn. Key adaptation measures included rainwater harvesting (64%) and crop diversification (45.6%). Multivariate probit results show that income significantly increased the likelihood of adopting crop diversification (β = 0.62, p = 0.001) and rainwater harvesting (β = 0.55, p = 0.002), while education enhanced diversification (β = 0.48, p = 0.003) and engagement in alternative income activities (β = 0.41, p = 0.010). Female-headed households experienced greater food shortages (χ 2 = 10.42, p = 0.006) and faced barriers to livestock destocking (β = − 0.35, p = 0.015). Low-income households were more affected by drought impacts overall (χ 2 = 12.87, p = 0.004). Key enablers of resilience included strong social networks, traditional and indigenous knowledge, and institutional support, though limited agricultural extension services constrained adaptation capacity. The study advocates for gender-responsive, equity-oriented drought policies, strengthened extension systems, and the integration of local knowledge to enhance resilience among vulnerable rural communities in drought-prone areas.