Intramuscular All-Trans Retinoic Acid-Adjuvanted Nanovaccine Elicits Robust Mucosal and Systemic Immunity Against Helicobacter pylori

The RA-adjuvanted nanovaccine effectively induces potent mucosal and systemic immunity via intramuscular administration, representing a promising strategy against mucosal pathogens such as <i>H. pylori</i>. This nanovaccine platform addresses key limitations associated with oral vaccination and with conventional intramuscular approaches that often yield limited mucosal immunity, offering an alternative for enhancing mucosal vaccine efficacy in mice; although a direct head-to-head comparison with an oral formulation remains to be established.