An investigation of the ethical and social risks of wearable robots in the construction industry: A delphi study and focus group approach

The construction industry remains one of the most hazardous fields, with workers exposed to strenuous and repetitive tasks. Wearable robots such as exoskeletons are emerging as ergonomic interventions that enhance strength, reduce muscle fatigue and discomfort, yet they also introduce unintended social and ethical concerns. While health and safety risks have been explored, limited research has examined the social and ethical risks associated with exoskeleton use in construction. This study investigates these risks, their effects on workers’ safety, and their influence on wearable robot implementation. Exploratory factor analysis identified seven main categories of concern: design and inclusivity, safety and autonomy, social perception and acceptance, dependency and health, usability, data privacy and security, and economic burden. The results reveal a distinction between the perceived impact of these risks and their criticality for adoption. Although many risks were viewed as highly impactful, only those related to safety, accessibility, and equitable deployment were considered very critical. Identity-related risks, for instance, were seen as highly impactful but less critical for implementation. The findings support the need for ethical and socially responsible approaches to the design and deployment of exoskeletons in construction, with the aim of protecting workers, promoting equitable adoption, and improving the human-wearable robot experience. • Inaccessibility, unaffordability, and gender-unsuitable designs are very critical ethical risks • Affordability is the most critical social risk. • Trust is the most prominent ethical concern. • Exoskeleton vulnerability and discomfort have very high risks to workers' health and safety. • Vulnerability and trust are high-priority risks