From packaging to plate: Environmental pollution and human exposure pathways of plastic-derived contaminants

Plastic-based food packaging is essential to modern food systems but has become a major source of environmental pollution and an emerging threat to human health. Despite extensive research on plastic pollution, significant gaps remain in understanding how packaging-derived microplastics (MPs), nanoplastics (NPs), and chemical additives enter the human body, persist in tissues, and contribute to chronic disease risk. This review synthesizes current evidence on the environmental performance of plastic food packaging, with particular emphasis on its contribution to marine pollution and the bioaccumulation of plastic-associated contaminants in commercially important seafood. Recent case studies from high-burden regions reveal critical weaknesses in global waste management systems, the rapid expansion of the sachet economy, and continued dependence on single-use plastics as major drivers of marine litter and seafood contamination. Emerging mechanistic insights indicate that MPs function as ecological niches for complex microbial biofilms, known as the plastisphere, which can harbor pathogenic microorganisms and facilitate horizontal gene transfer, including the spread of antibiotic resistance genes. This raises concerns about seafood-mediated exposure along the human food chain. The review also examines the toxicological effects of MPs, NPs, and packaging-derived chemicals such as bisphenols, phthalates, styrene derivatives, heavy metals, and PFASs linking them to oxidative stress, endocrine disruption, immunotoxicity, and gut microbiota dysbiosis. A critical research gap is the limited understanding of chronic low-dose co-exposure and synergistic health effects. The review concludes by highlighting regulatory gaps and advocating coordinated policy, industry, and consumer actions to advance sustainable and circular food packaging solutions . • Plastic packaging drives microplastic contamination of marine food chains. • MPs and NPs disrupt gut and immune function and can cross biological barriers. • Plastisphere biofilms on MPs enrich pathogens and elevate seafood safety risks. • Microplastics promote ARG persistence and transfer, raising human health concerns. • Review urges global policy and research to address plastic toxicity and exposures.