Biogenesis and application of membrane vesicles produced by gut bacteria

Bacterial membrane vesicles (MVs) are nanosized lipid bilayer particles (20-400 nm) that package proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, and metabolites derived from parent cells. MVs are now recognized as actively produced structures that play crucial roles in bacterial physiology and host-microbe interactions. Both Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria, including commensals and pathogens in the gut, release MVs that mediate communication, gene transfer, and immunomodulation. This mini review summarizes recent advances in understanding MV biogenesis and function, with an emphasis on gut bacterial MVs. We outline 2 biogenetic pathways, lysis-associated and non-lytic routes, and discuss regulatory mechanisms, including environmental cues that modulate MV release. Furthermore, we highlight emerging evidence that gut bacterial MVs influence host immunity, barrier function, and disease pathogenesis, while also serving as promising vaccine platforms and diagnostic biomarkers.