Climate adaptation strategies and sustainable paddy production: a systematic policy review of the water-energy-food nexus in Mbarali district, Tanzania

The Water-Energy-Food (WEF) nexus in Mbarali district is increasingly stressed by climate change, threatening paddy production through rising temperatures, erratic rainfall, and competition for resources. This review examined 15 national policies published between 2006 and 2023, focusing on documents that addressed at least two WEF sectors, included strategic or implementation components, and referenced climate adaptation. Broad development plans, draft documents, and subnational policies were excluded. Policies were identified through targeted searches of official government and organizational websites, last accessed in October 2025. Risk of bias was assessed based on the clarity of objectives, transparency of institutional roles, and adequacy of adaptation measures, while synthesis was conducted narratively to compare sectoral integration and adaptation focus. Findings indicate that agricultural policies demonstrated the highest integration and climate adaptation focus, water strategies improved over time, and energy policies lagged in cross-sector alignment. Despite some progress, sectoral silos, unclear coordination mechanisms, and weak operational links limit effective adaptation. The review highlights the need for explicit cross-sector strategies, strengthened institutional capacity, and coordinated platforms to enhance resilience and ensure sustainable paddy production under changing climatic conditions.