The development and validation of the English-as-a-Foreign-Language Listening Test Anxiety Scale

Anxiety in language education, particularly test anxiety, has been extensively studied. Various tools have been developed to measure anxiety levels related to language skills, including general listening anxiety in the context of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) (Kim, English Teaching 57: 3-34 2002). However, a specific scale designed to measure EFL listening test anxiety, particularly in the Omani context, is still unavailable. This study developed and validated the English-as-a-Foreign-Language Listening Test Anxiety Scale (EFL-LTAS) through a mixed-methods research design including literature review, semi-structured focus group discussion, expert review, and survey administration among 509 Foundation Programme students at the University of Technology and Applied Sciences-Al Mussanah, Oman. Content validity was established through expert review (S-CVI/Ave = 0.88). Exploratory factor analysis identified three factors: Cognitive (comprising Worry and Cognitive Interference), Physiological, and Environmental Tension, resulting in a 20-item scale. Confirmatory factor analysis across three independent samples validated the three-factor structure with acceptable model fit (CFI = 0.931–0.948, RMSEA = 0.045–0.053). Bifactor modelling confirmed that the scale measures three distinct dimensions rather than a single general factor (ωh = 0.262–0.314). The EFL-LTAS and State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) were used to measure EFL learners’ (n = 509) listening test anxiety and general anxiety, respectively. The results revealed a higher EFL-LTAS mean than STAI mean, particularly among female university students, with both scores exceeding the norms in the STAI manual. These findings highlight the multidimensional nature of listening test anxiety and underscore the need for targeted interventions addressing cognitive concerns, physiological symptoms, and environmental stressors in EFL listening assessment contexts. The EFL-LTAS provides educators and researchers with a reliable, context-sensitive tool for identifying and addressing listening test anxiety among Arabic-speaking EFL learners.