Changes in the body size of domestic cattle from archaeological sites in Northeastern Poland from the Middle Ages to the Early Modern period

In this study, changes in the body size of domestic cattle in Northeastern Poland, from the Middle Ages to the Early Modern period, are investigated based on over 800 measurements of metapodial bones from sites in Mazovia, Podlachia and Western Polesie. The focus is on estimating the withers height and examining sex-based differences, in order to better understand the breeding strategies and herd compo- sition over time. While earlier research has addressed cattle morphology in Poland, data from post-Early Medieval eastern regions remains limited. This analysis reveals regional and chronological patterns, in- cluding greater diversity in the cattle withers height during the Early Modern period. In Mazovia, bulls decreased in size while cows became more variable, likely due to crossbreeding with imported livestock. In Podlachia, cows grew larger and more diverse; while in Polesie, the steer height declined, which was possibly linked to changes in castration practices. The findings confirm that small and medium-sized cattle predominated, with larger individuals appearing sporadically. The data suggests long-term herd manage- ment prioritising milk production and cow-dominant herds. These results underscore the need for further research in underrepresented areas, to better understand the transition from the Late Medieval to the Early Modern period.