Protonation dynamics of confined ethanol–water mixtures in H-ZSM-5 from machine learning-driven metadynamics

Thermodynamic analysis of protonation equilibria in ethanol–water mixtures confined in zeolites shows how hydration controls excess-proton preference and modulates the nature of transient protonated intermediates. • MLP-based metadynamics reveals hydration-dependent protonation dynamics at BAS. • Proton shifts from ethanol to water with increasing water loading. • Minimum three water molecules required to stabilize hydronium ion inside pores. • Entropy and H-bond dynamics govern proton exchange between BAS, ethanol, and water. Zeolites are indispensable heterogeneous catalysts in industrial chemical processes, valued for their strong Brønsted acidity, well-defined microporous frameworks, and tunable pore structures. Their catalytic activity arises primarily from Brønsted acid sites (BAS), typically present as bridging hydroxyl groups (Si–OH–Al). Under aqueous reaction conditions, these protons interact dynamically with water and alcohol molecules, leading to complex solvation and protonation behavior within confined pores. In this study, we investigate the protonation equilibrium occurring between ethanol and water at the BAS of acidic zeolites under varying hydration levels, i.e., C 2 H 5 OH–(H 2 O) n , n = 1–4. Local structure was analyzed through an adaptive-learning global optimization algorithm, while enhanced sampling molecular dynamics simulations with Well-Tempered Metadynamics (WTMetaD) and machine learning interatomic potentials (MLPs) provide free-energy surfaces (FES) at variable hydration levels. The results reveal a strong dependence of proton localization on the degree of hydration. In presence of just 1 water molecule, the proton resides predominantly on ethanol; with 2 water molecules, it shifts toward water, and starting at 3, it becomes delocalized over the water cluster. These findings underscore the critical role of solvation in modulating acid site behavior and suggest that a minimum of three water molecules is necessary to fully stabilize the proton on water within the zeolite framework. This solvation threshold has significant implications for catalytic processes, particularly in biomass conversion reactions where alcohol protonation is a key step in dehydration mechanisms.