The Crime of <i>Wulf and Eadwacer</i>

There is little doubt that the poem—the lyric, the elegy, the riddle, the song—that critics have labeled Wulf and Eadwacer remains the most enigmatic piece of extant Old English verse. Add to its narrative ambiguity the fact that this poem contains a number of difficult words that are not attested elsewhere in the OE corpus, and the result is an incredibly malleable text that can accommodate a wide range of legitimate readings. Meaning is often dependent on a translator's choices, and so it is perhaps no wonder that these nineteen lines of verse found in Exeter Cathedral Library, MS 3501 (fols. 100v-101r) have been read as everything from a captive woman's lament for an absent lover,1 to a pastoral riddle,2 to a canine romance,3 to a charm against tumors,4 to an eleventh-century drag performance,5 to a vernacular adaptation of Heroides,6 to a plea of divine supplication.7 There is no standard or even widely-accepted translation of the poem, and ever since the first known editor of the Exeter manuscript singled out Wulf and Eadwacer as the only text to be left untranslated, the critical history of these verse lines has been consistently dogged by difficulty.8There are, however, several points of agreement that most critics share, agreements I likewise build upon here. In order to facilitate these points of agreement so that points of divergence can, in turn, be more readily articulated, I have printed the complete text of the poem, followed by a translation from Roy Liuzza: Leodum is minum swylce him mon lac gife;willað hy hine aþecgan, gif he on þreat cymeð. Ungelic is us.Wulf is on iege, ic on oþerre.5Fæst is þæt eglond, fenne biworpen.Sindon wælreowe weras þær on ige;willað hy hine aþecgan, gif he on þreat cymeð. Ungelice is us.Wulfes ic mines widlastum wenum dogode;10þonne hit wæs renig weder ond ic reotugu sæt,þonne mec se beaducafa bogum bilegde,wæs me wyn to þon, wæs me hwæþre eac lað.Wulf, min Wulf, wena me þineseoce gedydon, þine seldcymas,15murnende mod, nales meteliste.Gehyrest þu, Eadwacer? Uncerne earmne hwelpbireð wulf to wuda.Þæt mon eaþe tosliteð þætte næfre gesomnad wæs,uncer giedd geador.9(It's as if someone should give a gift to my people—they will kill him if he comes to the troop.It is otherwise for us.Wulf is on an island, I on another.5Fast is that island, surrounded by fen.The men on the island are murderous and cruel;they will kill him if he comes to the troop.It is otherwise for us.I felt far-wandering hopes for my Wulf,10as I sat weeping in the rainy weather,when the bold warrior's arms embraced me—it was sweet to me, yet I also despised it.Wulf, my Wulf! My wanting youhas made me sick—your seldom coming,15my mourning heart, not lack of meat.Do you hear, Eadwacer? A wolf bears awayour wretched cub to the woods.One can easily split what was never united,the song of the two of us.)10All critics agree that the speaker of the poem is female: the nominative, feminine form of the adjective rēotig, “wailing; lamenting” in line 10b, and the accusative, feminine form of sēoc, “sick; ill” in 14a makes this explicit. Most agree that the present plane of the speaker reflects a “state of emotional extremity,” and that her “anguish” stems from some past, probably non-prescribed sexual relationship with a character named Wulf.11 The poem “peaks” in line 16a with a vocative turn to a third figure, Eadwacer, and the reason for this outcry is due, at least in part, to a situation involving the speaker's child.12 There are heroic tones—gifts, bloodthirsty men, hostile troops, battle-bold warriors, meat-hungry wolves—but this poem could also be said to live outside of that genre because of its female narrator. It is a haunting text, and one that demands our emotive engagement. We read and feel the cruelty. We note the interiority. We participate, as witnesses, in the speaker's sadness. But the elusive thing this is that it is because these words not not present to one reason for that by a and at the of the is a agreement to Wulf is an a an Wulf has in some that him outside the of our speaker and her The to is is Wulf and what has he to this the speaker's that is the only reason the poem what can these lines of verse to sexual in have that has to with an and with our no extant to as a for men in that divergence in critics can from in the and of the the of in ever since of the poem as an the female speaker is from her and a relationship with a have at the of this to and to these by a to this I that these lines of verse to the of a of that the speaker's to this is what the enigmatic that has made this so elusive to for so my a that and sexual has never been of this as and In her of the of in OE female for that Eadwacer not a on the her or at least her this as one the speaker to that Eadwacer the speaker's relationship with in a of the in read female in OE if poem more to the of to on to the speaker's and in the of the as in Old English not have a at in this not have to be or and to on and to a My the of this I to what I are the lines of the poem, lines I a to the our speaker her the of in and these lines as the of the I the of the poem, to the of the and the vocative turn to and on the of and I that the turn to Eadwacer is not only a plea of divine a plea of divine I that our speaker to the of for her earmne is to be in the and to the is to of these I of the that or the of Wulf and Eadwacer the of I and with several to the of of the and the I with a translation of the poem that the of as as the and of the speaker's in the of to the for the first first the in a of in its We the and even with this in can Wulf and Eadwacer a of the sexual or a in English for the of however, are to in and by that the is often to the as the of was not yet a of of in a and with to be however, since the English vernacular of in of to from of sexual are for and of is as he to of sexual not elsewhere in the vernacular of the of of the as our makes of two to sexual The first is the more have sexual and in mon to to to someone the of a of he that with and as a a a female he with of the more have sexual in with of mon on he he mon be mon be be be someone of a he her with he her not have with he her with he has he with with her it be that someone her with a her with or of that this should to a her by her our to several points of in order to the of the more The first is that the that the have the woman's as it is to that be to a to be the of and its and upon one for and be read as a for the as the of the more for It is of that the is with and so and to the for the of this the was from in the of sexual and these the of and sexual of with of in on on hit be men with sexual of a upon her or upon her her it will the have for OE vernacular to the sexual of only in of sexual as of however, one piece of that be said to to in a and it also a of as a for the of of gif þæt for for if a or a by he to the of to and the The of a not it a is by the of the and for the of a from the to and to in however, the sexual of is of to and of this to the in is with the of the of be as an of this in a and Eadwacer it is not to English The of a of to the and of for and sexual is for not only the of also the canine of its for the of Wulf and Eadwacer, an and is to þæt is to wide and is to þæt to þæt and and an and for and of to and he it is to of what has and it is to what often that and and a as a and with that one a one and the no for and for a that he at the and the of and have the of as Old by adaptation of of the of that also in the to vernacular and is But as has to be as an against and more with and as an against the But this is for it a of a and relationship that our poem likewise the canine and the the canine and the that of in be that the for and the of a in was The for was a for in what was not however, was that the of for to and was in and to to to be in the that is to be hy hine aþecgan, gif he on þreat to kill if he with a and a of is likewise in the of and is in in of in in in a the and at the of the a of was to as a against of by of a that if or found in the he be at by and and with the and of he be in the in of to be by and and of the is to be said in a the of for these and been as yet the the it is to note the canine the of the by the of the in English for that in are to the most of to to and these likewise the of and and of the it to reason that as the most in these is the in Wulf and is the in the to of the English is to the from as the of the is the and if are to to will be to the of a an and for and with in of as of to of and upon and an with and as a for a of Wulf and since OE is and and since Wulf and Eadwacer an in its manuscript the first of Exeter are to this text could be said to an of female by a to the as a for a and more the emotional and ambiguity of Wulf and Eadwacer has been the of this I can no I to the it is also that this ambiguity is of the of and often to a of and what have reflects and of sexual for a the with its to a that in a the of a with sexual this the poem not only a of the of also a of are and the to the of these Old English emotional of the first lines of Wulf and Eadwacer is The the in and and and the are The however, are and more to one as build the emotional and and as an ic mines widlastum wenum dogode;10þonne hit wæs renig weder ond ic reotugu sæt,þonne mec se beaducafa bogum bilegde,wæs me wyn to þon, wæs me hwæþre eac are several to these and as has the is It is to that lines and should be to and of a two lines a that in the to the and the of the speaker's lines are by the on and and lines can be read a in the is the speaker's sexual of these lines in turn, the most of line are the words and The from is not attested elsewhere in the OE It is by to be a and to the form of have this as English vernacular and not have is with a and is and to the the a or and so the of is a for absent as is the of the poem, is perhaps a the by and I as the since it the canine of the poem, and I as an to English or the in the speaker's the and followed my are of this elusive the form of It can be as or as it can also be in its and more if line as its in with the these or should the of the poem as to the not The more the adjective is with a to the line by Wulf as the speaker's even as an of however, one could as easily with the text and line can be followed the of Wulf in my The speaker of often in the and in her and to him from this is in for for the adjective has an to it and not an it was rainy and I sat The lines in this however, are the that the lament is made an in as of the poem on one this are split this adjective to Wulf or to Eadwacer, its the and to form or of one to should be as it lines and our speaker that if Wulf þreat with a or with an or even an on one OE he will be is to is that our speaker her that and for are a of at line the adjective is most a for Wulf, because it with the have been of one and for someone as to and and this is a of a it also the of a sexual in OE are most often in to or for contains more that everything from the to the of to the or to to the in the But OE also makes of to of that the and in the Exeter The for to the of its have to my and it in even more for our is the in comes to sexual is most as or an that is and ond and by a in from on se mec on that the a are of or a in the of me, from it in the on on The that I to is that OE for a wide range of and that the and one that of and the of to the of line for the from has most often been as or even the more several that are to the fact that to be at with the by and also with a and the of the with is and of for makes of the in the of with the to a and likewise to be the for our the a gif and þæt he if a in is with and it is said that he is a he is to with the or for the of the these as the someone from an or or in a of with someone or a of the or or in a a is made to of these are of the The of line is the the the form of can be as or or the more that some also a more in with to the of and with someone someone and so perhaps a more translation of line the one me with or me with It is this this and in that the of from in the line of the the The speaker that for was that or that the that her and so was the that the speaker Wulf he was her in the or was the result of Wulf that the of to a also that at one Wulf was an of our a of has to that more of of sexual are by someone the and one in are by an I of narrative in I if this be to the to and the of emotional by our if Wulf to the speaker's this her lament and the for upon The emotional from to reflects the speaker's from to that the this of have a range of for these emotional that the with the of and the wyn with the the speaker's that these lines her and in the to the by that for the absent Wulf her and this is by the The range of on in line has consistently been as the that the speaker should feel in her to this has most of the text, it is a that the speaker's perhaps the speaker's from a the of to the of and to my a these lines that our female speaker the of Wulf in her of him the the one her with her to a that and her is not the and of a is that in the of a this of lines as a of sexual can this our of Wulf and Eadwacer as a to the speaker and the that Wulf, is no is because it to read the also to her a I read as it be a gift to her if Wulf to because to kill him for what he has hy hine are for and so I the first line is to my as if someone a in lines and can be as the more for several on the it is that at one Wulf was a of is no has him an also him for upon by the that lines and Wulf if he to the can kill him will not him if he our speaker that the line in this poem, as a haunting and the and as a result of an The lines to our are in narrative with the of the is is with the more of the poem and to outside the of the that the of the speaker's in the of It is with Wulf, because of what you have to are not a of It is with the speaker to her the lines to the plane of the this in the as or a the as the more or an of you of have made me what I is the of the The is a that the lack of have most or it could in with the that of makes her because he to has to the of out of But as one this line the of the is to the line makes more and the that because not the of our speaker is not has her to have a or could from or from the of what our speaker has in and for the emotional of the poem, and our to the the line as a to Eadwacer, a number of have that earmne wretched to Eadwacer and our two this are difficult to as the text a character with an canine it is that be and have also the in OE and and and have its in to the of an are to the of and a that is to the A against an is the in a more not a a and the only relationship that has been by line that and not be is Wulf and the is Eadwacer? from the most and of a on the that Eadwacer, the of line is a adjective that can be its has words in OE that as first and a or as the this to an with that the has the of one and is an for a to this is the you and has in vernacular the in the it is in its as a translation of the in the The þu, to as complete vernacular to a plea of divine The that I to build on is divine for is that the speaker to as the only of her emotional and from an that a for the of to likewise from the that Eadwacer in for a the as an to a for as a lament for her of these to and a lament on of a in on an of the speaker's turn to Eadwacer and be the speaker that Wulf will the to the her as also a from from this to is the speaker that her the of will the as and be for an as could an in the or and that our speaker perhaps has reason to from that a has an could be as as if with the earmne wulf to will our wretched to the In for the is from an and her is as an from and of to him to the as an to live with as an The to he in and two wolf in the the and that have been with narrative that with the of not consistently the of the of of in in the the will not be because of an the The of is that a a was as an also be an this the of the of a in a to the be that to are even if are not that not yet have been a the of Wulf and Eadwacer, it was a The of the of the speaker's I to her the of the in the plea to you me, Eadwacer? Wulf will our wretched to the the is for the and to be from even in I to is that the vocative turn to Eadwacer can be read as a plea of divine for the speaker's to the of and the speaker's plea is a for her a to the for a of the is of of outside of that not a form of or an to facilitate In the for by and it was not the that by of the The of an for to for was a form of by its in the of and are as a by of known to have and the these to the and the of in on the of an in also with canine The of that as a for the or of and a to or if a of and no is and it is this I that can the speaker's vocative turn to by the of the speaker's to from this one of and even more these is that in it as a for of sexual The first to in in the of have a for and upon in But it is on this the to in in I the of this for sexual The first the be hit gif on and þæt in by should to of the or female it if not are dependent on what the and will the of and a of at in of sexual the is not to be left to the of the the to and have been of The in I also this more the he he þæt be has with a he not be of a he more a The of sexual with the with of are not to the and order and of the most form of in and of sexual and of the In the known as the Old English was to be by are to of these are with sexual a and an be two in is for a have been for an to of Wulf and Eadwacer that an But as as from the was not by and so be in on the was by in the to he someone with of a or for against her him be the of the of is not as a for in the it is as also for in The that I to build the of of this is that of sexual and the of in are the that the narrative of a sexual the narrative of Wulf and to the text, the lines even more the have that the speaker's of the to her is that a a that the even and and that the of a as a of from the and of that the speaker of Wulf and Eadwacer to her so that can more readily be with her or or I a more can be perhaps the speaker is should feel this to the the present of and in the from lines are the most The to easily that was never is to be an of and a to the speaker the fact that the her as never and the poem a lament the of of her and also or of be to in a however, is that it is to that was never since never and since Wulf is and will never have to have a song the the poem a the of and the of not emotional a The is not a a on the and sexual a of Wulf and Eadwacer that its elusive as from and sexual and is it that this the The is that by not the speaker's or is the of someone has and has been from the to her with her not her the of by her her her as a and Wulf and Eadwacer as in to the range of in and perhaps a that Wulf and Eadwacer and The not have to be and in from some critical these two more often not to in these of for to are for and in a of the from the of that female to the of an of and that to be or at least because of an that from the of the the or that from poem is an with its of an its be are not and in as of the reason Wulf and Eadwacer has since the is because it is so because are to in the that this poem with our emotional I perhaps of But this and not an or more more as this poem our of and it of not the one as a poem by a Wulf and Eadwacer is one of for female the it is also the of the female are to Wulf and Eadwacer as a of for the English female or as this has the of so not the the the and the men of Exeter read and this of is the for a to The are as and as the of the poem, what is our is that the poem some to to sexual by in its and a for on from the of the to on the more and of Wulf and Eadwacer in the to drag to if Wulf and Eadwacer and the and the and this poem be said to men a to to the of upon an and of female sexual an for it is a that has a and history in for of on and its for that a is not her because is a of the not the to feel if se in in that he has if is and and for someone that is not But only so and so to a more the of the is a that has also been of to English to of and in the of was by he for of and with her to as he to her for in se what thing only could the was so by her that to the and was so the only this by the its that and give to that for in even for this is to that to will to have been her is one of I this to our of the that and Wulf and Eadwacer, because an that can only be known to our an even to the difficult me wyn to þon, wæs me hwæþre eac me was in was also that the only that and Wulf that to the speaker the of as a result of with the a for the of of in to that to with the was to on the in the of for that that not been to the woman's The that a in is by the as the result of was