Modular Virus-Like Particles: Building Nanoscale Platforms for Multiple Applications

Abstract Virus-like particles (VLPs) are multiprotein structures that mimic the conformation of infectious virus particles and are therefore potent inducers of immune responses in mammals. Because they are non-infectious and non-replicative, VLPs are attractive options for developing safer vaccines. Modular VLPs are composed of proteins that display universal attachment sites, allowing further functionalization with antigens of interest. These systems are especially useful for creating multivalent vaccines, quickly adaptable vaccines in pandemic scenarios, or vaccines targeting challenging pathogens where traditional methods have failed. Besides vaccines, modular VLPs are also being studied as carriers for targeted cell delivery and as protective shells for fragile biological cargo. In this review, I discuss current strategies for designing modular VLPs, focusing on the types of anchoring sites and attachment techniques used.