Comparative performance of photovoltaic technologies and grid-connected system optimization across Afghanistan’s climatic zones

• m-Si PV outperformed p-Si and a-Si across six climates in Afghanistan. • PV/grid/converter setup showed the best economic and environmental outcomes. • Optimal LCOE ranged from $0.0465–$0.0598/kWh, with 62.4–68.6 % renewable share. • High solar irradiance reduced costs; high temperatures increased economic burden. The efficient utilization of solar photovoltaic (PV) technologies is crucial for sustainable energy development and reducing environmental pollution. Since solar PV performance varies significantly by location, conducting detailed evaluations under different climatic conditions is essential. This study offers a comprehensive comparative evaluation of three major PV technologies across six distinct climate regions in Afghanistan. The results indicate that mono-crystalline silicon (m-Si) consistently outperformed both poly-crystalline silicon (p-Si) and amorphous silicon (a-Si) in key performance metrics. Specifically, m-Si demonstrated superior array yield, final yield, capacity factor, and performance ratio, ranging from 81.8% to 88.9% across the studied regions. The optimization of the hybrid system revealed that the PV/grid/converter configuration was the most economically and environmentally advantageous across all analyzed areas. This configuration yielded a net present cost (NPC) between USD 197,905.25 and USD 226,336.51, with a cost of energy (COE) ranging from USD 0.0465/kWh to USD 0.0598/kWh and renewable energy penetration varying from 62.4 % to 68.6 %. Furthermore, sensitivity analysis demonstrated that higher solar irradiance correlated with lower COE and total NPC, while increased temperatures resulted in higher costs, underscoring the critical importance of solar radiation in system economics.