Agri-food by-products to fortify a fish-based food: a new approach to balance pro and cons of recycling

Abstract Cod-based pâtés were developed using extra-virgin olive oil and by-products from broccoli, carrots, tomatoes (TPS), and cime di rapa (CdR), following dehydration and grinding treatments. The by-products were added up to the maximum level to maintain the pâté full sensory acceptance (score > 5 on a 9-point scale). Control and fortified formulations were assessed for antioxidant activity, total dietary fibre content, and the energy consumption associated with by-product processing. A life cycle assessment (LCA) was conducted to quantify the carbon footprint of each pâté. The optimal formulation required markedly different incorporation levels of by-products: TPS produced the least sensory impact (mass fraction 0.293), whereas CdR showed the most pronounced effect (mass fraction 0.129). The LCA consistently demonstrated a net reduction in terms of global warming potential, ranged from 1.13 to 0.12 kgCO2eq, primarily driven by the displacement of high-impact ingredient (cod and extra virgin olive oil). The global quality index, utilized to balance antioxidant activity, fibre content, environmental impact, and sensory quality, identified TPS as the optimal by-product to be recycled.