Non-destructive analysis reveals provenance and techniques of glassware excavated from the Jiujian site in China

This study investigates the provenance and manufacturing process of glassware excavated from the Jiujian Site in Heilongjiang Province, China, dating to the Liao and Jin Dynasties (A.D. 907–1234), using multiple non-destructive analytical techniques including XRD, LRS, PIXE and SEM-EDS. The results categorize the glassware into three distinct systems: K₂O-CaO-SiO₂, K₂O-CaO-PbO-SiO₂, and K₂O-PbO-SiO₂. The composition was consistent with indigenous Chinese glass systems, distinguishing them from contemporary Islamic glassware. The blue glassware was mainly coloured by Cu²⁺, with some samples incorporating fluorite (CaF₂) as an opacifier. During the firing and cooling processes, CaF₂ crystals precipitate and accumulate within the glass matrix, causing light scattering and thereby producing an opacifying effect. This study has expanded the understanding of ancient glassware research by overcoming single-method limitations, confirmed the early application of fluorite opacification technology, and perfected the technological lineage of indigenous glassware production in China during the Liao and Jin Dynasties.