The effects of endocrine disruptors on the female reproductive system

Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) are a diverse, comprehensive group of mostly synthetic chemicals that disrupt many physiological functions in humans and animals. EDCs are particularly disruptive to the female reproductive system. Reproductive function in women is a dynamic process regulated by the hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian axis. EDCs show their effects on the reproductive system through estrogenic, antiestrogenic, androgenic, and antiandrogenic effects or by directly affecting gonadotropin-releasing hormone secretion. Disruption in the menstrual cycle, decrease in fertility, infertility, increased risk of miscarriage, polycystic ovary syndrome, endometriosis, early or delayed puberty, and hormone-sensitive cancers can be listed as the main negative effects of endocrine disruptors on the female reproductive system. In this review, findings on the effects of the most studied EDCs, bisphenol A, phthalates, methoxychlor ethane, tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin, atrazine, per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances, and micro- and nanoplastics on the female reproductive system are summarized.