Exogenous rutin ameliorates NaCl‑induced inhibition of Fagopyrum esculentum germination and early growth

We conclude that exogenous rutin operates not through a single mode of action, but by orchestrating a synergistic enhancement of the plant's intrinsic antioxidant and osmotic defense systems. This integrated defense converges to maintain membrane stability, providing a robust mechanistic framework that validates rutin's use as an effective biostimulant to enhance crop resilience in saline environments.